Who am I as a Learner and who am I Becoming a Teacher Essay

Who am I as a Learner and who am I Becoming a Teacher - Essay Example This is followed by the different responsibilities that are a part of being a teacher, as opposed to being a learner. Identifying each of these within my personal life and making the transition into the needed responsibilities and changes is the beginning of perspectives which I have to alter the way in which I look at being both a learner and a teacher. The first change in perspective and in responsibility which I have noticed is with the ideology of being a learner in a diverse classroom as opposed to working as a teacher with the need to associate with the needs of different learners. Multiculturalism, diversity, behaviors and other associations within the classroom are the main concepts now associated with the classroom. The demand is to learn how to work in the classroom with the changes and to find new solutions to the dynamics of the classroom (Greene, 1993). I have noticed that working in a classroom as a learner often creates friction because of the same problem. When I am w orking as a learner, I noticed the diversity and also note that the structure within the classroom doesn’t work. However, as a teacher, there is no solution to the current structure that is a part of the classroom. When looking at the responsibilities of an emerging teacher, there is the understanding that the environment and dynamics has to change for the right change and ability to learn with the diverse classroom. This creates more of an understanding as a learner and the ability to find new solutions as an emerging teacher. The concept of the diverse classroom and meeting the changes and needs that are a part of the teaching and learning further with understanding what is needed to begin teaching. This begins with the images that are in the classroom for the environment as well as how children perceive and respond to this. The image which a learner has toward the classroom and the image which the teacher has of the child is an alternative perspective. There are changes th at alter according to the environment and what is occurring between the changing images of the learner and the teacher (Malaguzzi, Emilia, 1993). I know that as a learner, I look at the environment first, which gives a specific impression of the teacher and what the highlights are for the year. This is followed with how the environment may affect or change my desire to learn. I also know that as a learner, I look at how the teacher looks at me and what is expected of me. This means that as a teacher, I will need to create an environment that builds the right first impression. That also means that I will need to be cautious of the images which I have of learners and what is expected. This makes an impact on the learning and the changes which occur throughout the year in the given environment. The environment and impressions in the classroom are furthered with other concepts and responsibilities between the learner and teacher. Teaching as a pedagogical activity is one which requires more than a basic curriculum and the ability to associate with the classroom. It is one which requires responsibilities for understanding what children are able to offer while building the diverse classroom. The curriculum becomes a foundation that should be expanded on by the teacher so there is an understanding of subject material and a sense of responsibility toward what all children need (Van Manen, 1991). This concept is one of the most difficult for both learners and teachers. My experience as a learner is one which has noted this, specifically because of my place in the classroom. There have been times where the curriculum and assignments didn’t make sense; however, the ability for the teacher to be available is

Political Ideology Essay Example for Free

Political Ideology Essay Abstract: Are these heady days for Nigerian political parties? This is the main question, which this paper addresses with emphasis on political ideology, being the first and most important vehicle of a political party. It is argued that despite all pretences to the contrary through their manifestoes, as much as the superficial classifications as the â€Å"left† and â€Å"right†, â€Å"progressive† and â€Å"conservative†, Nigerian parties seem to be bereft of clear ideological commitments. This conclusion is predicated upon the relegation of politics of issues to the background across the various republics, and in its place the ascendancy of identity and money politics. Other factors include the rising magnitude of political vagrancy on the basis of selfish and parochial interests, the high level of party indiscipline, absence/weakness of party cohesion and internal democracy, and the high mortality and turnover of party leadership. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of this for Nigeria’s democratization and democratic consolidation, before concluding with some recommendations. 1. Introduction. Are these heady days for Nigerian political parties? It does not seem so. Although, the decade of the 1990s witnessed the massive spread of what Huntington (1991) referred to as the â€Å"third wave† of democratization to Africa, including Nigeria, leading to an unprecedented resurgence of multiparty politics, there is no controversy about the fact that the mere adoption of party pluralism will not automatically advance the cause of democracy without the institutionalization of certain institutional parameters to promote and sustain due process in theory and practice (See, Bratton and Van de Walle, 1992; 1997; Sorensen, 612 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 1993). One of the most complex and critical institutions of democracy is political party. Political parties, as â€Å"makers† of democracy, have been so romanticized that scholars have claimed that neither democracy nor democratic societies are thinkable without them. They not only perform functions that are government related, such as making government accountable and exercising control over government administration; and electorate related functions such as political representation, expression of people’s demand through interest articulation and aggregation as well as structuring of electoral choices; but also linkage related functions, playing an intermediary and mediatory role between the government and the electorate (see, Moore, 2002; Lapalombara and Anderson, 2001; Simon, 1962). Following Omotola (2005a) and Egwu (2005), Saliu and Omotola (2006) have pointed out that political parties can only cope effectively with these responsibilities to the extent of their political institutionalization in terms of structure, internal democracy, cohesion and discipline, as much as their autonomy. The element of party autonomy is very crucial. For, as Alli Mari Tripp has argued, and rightly so, those organizations that have asserted the greatest autonomy have generally been able to â€Å"select their own leaders, push for far-reaching agendas, and involve themselves in politics to a greater extent than organizations that have been tied to the regime/or dominant party, either formally or through informal patronage networks† (Tripp, 2001:101). A note of caution is necessary here to avoid confusion. The relationship between political parties and the state is a complex one. This is because it is the party that forms the government, the latter being the institution of the state. To now talk of a hard-line demarcation between the two may be unrealistic. Yet, the relationship should be well defined such that political parties, especially the one in power, as a critical segment of both the state and society, can enjoy some reasonable degree of â€Å"societal autonomy†, the absence of which poses serious threats to â€Å"political liberalization, democratization and democratic consolidation† (Tripp, 2001:105). In such a situation, multiparty democracy can be adapted for the â€Å"politicization of ethnicity and further 613 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria elite enrichment encouraging a confrontational and divisive system† (cf Dicklitch, 2002:205). The import of the foregoing discussion, to take a cue from Saliu and Omotola (2006:2), is that the level of political institutionalization of political parties and their institutional strengths are directly correlated to their ability to discharge their ascribed responsibilities, and by extension, the strengths of democracy. When well institutionalized, political parties can serve as a set of mediating institutions through which differences in ideas, interests and perception of political problems at a given time can be managed (Olagunju, 2000; Omotola, 2005a). However, when the reverse is the case, the democracy project and the general system stand the risk of perversion and eventual breakdown. Whatever the case, it is important to note that at the very heart of the success or otherwise of political party is the important question of political ideology. The issue of ideology has been so central to the activities of political parties across time and space that Anson D. Morse (1896:76) has argued that ideology, being the durable convictions held in common by party members in respect to the most desirable form, institutions, spirit and course of action of the state, determines the natural attitude of a party towards every public question (cf. Iyare, 2004:81). In an incisive piece on â€Å"political party convention†, Richard Davies and Vincent J. Strickler (1996:1025) similarly argue that â€Å"ideology functions as planks†, that is, single issue statements within the platform, the exact ideological orientation of which is often used as a bargaining chip in seeking party unity. Here, the platform connotes a statement of the official party position on a variety of issues. Okudiba Nnoli (2003:177-82) also concludes that ideology is a very crucial aspect of politics, not only by serving as a cognitive structure for looking at society generally and providing a prescriptive formula, that is, a guide to individual action and judgement, but also as a powerful instrument of conflict management, selfidentification, popular mobilization and legitimization. It may, therefore, be correct to assert that the first and most important vehicle of a political party, under an ideal situation, should be its ideological stance. 614 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria In reality, however, this is seldom the case. Perhaps, due to the shallowness of democratic roots especially in the developing countries, other forces of identity particularly ethnicity and religion would appear to have taken the place of ideology. The rising influence of money politics represents another crucial limiting dimension (see, Nugent, 2001a: 2001b; 2001c; 1999; 1995; Gros, 1998; Omotola, 2004). What is the situation with Nigerian parties? Put differently, do Nigerian parties have ideology? How has its ideological condition shaped and influenced the course of party politics in the country? The main thrust of this chapter is to critically engage these questions with a view to suggesting ways of reviving and raising the consciousness of Nigerian parties with regard to the centrality of ideology to party activities and effectiveness. The paper is organized into a number of sections. Firstly, it will analyze the place of ideology in political theory. The second substantive section situates Nigerian parties in historical perspectives, tracing briefly their origin and growth as a precursor to the analysis of the place of ideology in Nigerian parties across different epochs. The last substantive part of the paper, drawing on its immediate preceding section, engages the central question of whether Nigerian parties have ideology or not. It is argued that despite all pretences to the contrary through their manifestoes, as much as the superficial classifications as the â€Å"left† and â€Å"right†, â€Å"progressive† and â€Å"conservative† parties, Nigerian parties seem to be bereft of clear ideological commitments. This conclusion is predicated upon the relegation of politics of issues to the background across the various republics, and in its place the ascendancy of identity and money politics. Other factors include the rising magnitude of political vagrancy on the basis of selfish and parochial interests, the high level of party indiscipline, absence/weakness of party cohesion and internal democracy, and the high mortality and turnover of party leadership. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of this for Nigeria’s democratization and democratic consolidation, before concluding. 615 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 2. Ideology and Political Theory. Ideology represents a typically crucial element of political parties and their activities. It is a set of ideas about politics, all of which are related to one another and that modify and support each other. Though relatively enduring, it is yet a dynamic phenomenon, capable of being modified by new issues. It was in this light that Philips W. Shively (1997) defines an ideology as â€Å"a continually developing, organized set of ideas about politics that helps us to make sense of the myriad of political questions that face use†. For Okudiba Nnoli, ideology typifies â€Å"a systematized and interconnected set of ideas about the socio-economic and political organization of society as a whole† (Nnoli, 2003: 178). The concept of ideology, is, historically, deeply rooted in political theory. As a concept, it was coined by the late eighteenth century French philosopher, Destutt de Tracy (1754 – 1836). According to Nnoli (2003:177), Destutt de Tracy used it to describe a new scientific discipline that systematically studies ideas, emotions and sensations – the science of ideas. This conception has since changed and ideology has come to embody the ideas themselves. As a result of the changes, ideology has come to be presented as a subject representing two contradictory realities – the good and the bad, the former depicting ideology as â€Å"a system of thought that animates social or political action†, and the latter as a â€Å"misleading, illusory or one-sided criticism or condemnation† (cf Nnoli, 2003:178-79). This was the kind of debate that dominated political discourse in the midnineteenth century. For instance, in their: The German Ideology, Marx and Engels (1960) took a swipe at Hegel and his-co-travelers, describing them as ideologists of the bourgeois system, not articulate about the material conditions of social and political life. Yet, they went ahead to articulate another conception of ideology based on class analysis as a device for articulating the conflicting interests of different social classes (Nnoli, 2003:178). 616 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria. From whatever perspective one looks as it, the reality of political life across political systems, developed or developing, is the fact of multiple political options from which inevitably, choice(s) must be made. At such critical crossroads, ideology provides a ready guide for appropriate action. Philips W. Shively posits that ideology is useful to people, both for their own personal ease and satisfaction and for their public political activities. At the individual level, ideology helps to make sense reasonably easily and quickly of the varied political questions that come to one’s attention. In terms of its public utilities, it helps people to make persuasive arguments convincingly to enlist popular support for a given public policy (Shively, 1997:46 – 47). On the whole, therefore, ideology is an indispensable element of politics. It does not only serve as a major instrument of state power, playing major role in the acquisition, use and consolidation of power, but also functions as political lifeline for the animation of politics, forcing individuals and groups alike to make political judgment, especially in the face of competing and conflicting divides, as between capitalism and socialism, during the Cold War. On these notes, Nnoli (2003:181-83) summarizes the functions of ideology as that of providing: A cognitive structure for looking at society generally, be serving as an explanatory and justificatory category for societal realities; A prescriptive formula – a guide to individual action and judgment as a basis for the legitimization of public polities when in conformity with popular belief; An instrument of conflict management and the integration of society by limiting the basic values and issues over which societal members and disagree; A means of self-identification for the satisfaction of specific personality needs, a means of self-evaluation and social solidarity; A dynamic force in both individual and collective commitment action for or against the ruling class or decision. That is, it provides a powerful basis for mobilization; 617 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria Enhancement of the political appeals of a political party, by differentiating one party from another; and Negatively, may serve not only as a serious impediment to national integration and suppress the underprivileged, but also to disguise authoritarian rule. This is because, it tends to provide individuals with â€Å"imaginary avenues of escape from the harsh realities of social life† (Nnoli, 2003:183). It is important to note that ideologies do have certain defining attributes. Most notable among these include the fact that they are not simply the creation of those who hold them. Rather, they tend to take on a life of their own and guide the political views of their holders in unanticipated ways (see, Price and Sullivan, 1980; Freeden, 1996). In most cases, ideologies originate from seemingly irreconcilable antagonistic settings, tend to be exclusive, absolute and universal in character; and can be personalized and turned into a sacred belief similar to religious beliefs. While it is not entirely permanent, it is, however, resistant to fundamental changes (see, Sibley, 1970; Nnoli, 2003; Enemuo, 1999). Some illustrations suffice. Across time and space, various forms of ideologies have emerged at different times, Marxism and not in the least, African socialism. For space constraints, we can not examine each of these here. It is however important to note that most of these ideologies do fit correctly to the aforementioned attributes. For instance, almost all such ideologies such as conservatism and socialism emerged in situation of acute social strain, in response to liberalism and capitalism respectively. While liberalism emphasizes individualism (freedom, liberty), conservatism harps on collectivism characteristic of welfarist states. Despite their long history, attacks and counterattacks against each other, both liberalism and conservation still remain prominent ideologies in western democracies particularly the United States of American and Great Britain (see, Rudolph, Jr. , 1996; Kay, 1976). Today, the emphasis in political theory is predominantly on democratic ideology. David Howarth 618 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria defines a democratic ideology as one involving the classification and analysis of different types of democratic ideologies, as they are articulated and function in concrete societies. It includes various democratic forms and institutions as capitalist/liberal democracy and radical democracy. It also reflects on the differences within a given type such as direct and indirect variants of liberal democracy (Howarth, 2001: 191-94). Essentially, democratic ideology centers on the way in which the language and rhetoric of democracy function as a tool of ideological justification and legitimization by political elites and ruling classes. It also focuses on cultural and ethnical conditions for the proper functioning of liberal democratic states and societies, requiring in the least, a belief in or at least an acceptance of democracy (see, Putnam, 1993; 1995; 1996). Above all, democratic ideology typifies the use of democracy by social groups and political forces to constitute their identities and advance their interests. Here, according to Howarth (2001:193), â€Å"democracy is itself a key ideological element in political mobilization and struggle, and is used to create political frontiers between differently located social groups and agencies. Democratic ideology therefore captures the whole essence of our theoretical postulations on the centrality of ideology to the exploits of political parties. What needs to be added is that an umbrella party (Catch-All Party) that seeks to appeal to diverse interests, usually by adopting a general or vague platform, may not necessarily stick to only one ideology and vice versa. This is the case in the United States where in the two dominant parties – Democrats and Republican – there are Liberals, Moderates and Conservatives. The reverse is the case in Great Britain where the Labour and Conservative parties are each highly centralized and less catch-all in nature than American parties (see, Rudolph, Jr. , 1996: 1021). Yet, in either case, the parties are known for their well-defined and distinct ideologies. 619 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 3. Origin and Growth of Nigerian Parties Philips, W. Shively (1997:200) observed that although political party had turned to be useful for a variety of tasks that require control or communication, it was first invented for more limited and self serving purposes. This observation aptly captures the Nigerian reality. At its inception in 1923, precisely 24 June, 1923, following the introduction of the elective principle by the Clifford constitution, Nigerian parties had very limited and self-serving objectives. The main objective was perhaps, that of buying legitimacy for the colonial government through very limited franchise restricted to Lagos and Calabar. Richard Sklar, in his seminal work – Nigerian Political Parties – demonstrates articulately how the emergence of political associations such as the People’s Union, was only in response to the prevailing realities of colonial administration (Sklar, 1963; Coleman, 1958). Little wonder, when the first political party in Nigeria, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) emerged in 1923, under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay, its activities were restricted to contesting elections into the Lagos city council. For years, the UNDP was hegemonic in its dominance in electoral politics in the country. This was to be challenged by the Lagos Youth Movement latter Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)- formed in 1934 and defeated the NNDP for the three seats allocated to Lagos that year. By 1944, the increasing tempo of nationalist agitation had resulted in the formation of another political party – the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (CNCN), under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay and later Nnamdi Azikwe (see, Sklar, 1968: 46-50). This was followed, in quick succession, by the transformation of the Egbe Omo Oduduwa, a Yoruba sociocultural organization, into a political party, the Action Group (AG) in 1950 under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and the Northern People Congress (NPC) in 1959 with dominance in the northern region. By 1951, a breakaway faction of the NPC consisting mainly of radical youths based in Kano formed the Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU). These parties dominated the political landscape of the country particularly in their respective regions in the 620 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria march towards independence and in the First Republic (see, Dudley, 1973; Sklar, 1963). Although the Second Republic (1979 – 1983) witnessed the emergence of more political parties, there was no much difference with what obtained under the First Republic. Rather, what happened was the reincarnation of parties of the First Republic under different nomenclatures with some additional parties. The parties included the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) and the Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP) replacing the NPC, AG and NCNC, respectively. Others were the Peoples Redemption Party (PRP) and Great Nigerian Peoples Party (GNPP), and later Nigerian Advance Party (NAP), which was registered in 1982, after failing the first round in 1978 (Osaghae, 1998). These parties constituted major actors in the Second Republic. Under the aborted Third Republic, there was a fundamental change in the mode of party formation in Nigeria. This pertains to the official formation of parties by the state after a series of experiments with different political associations (see, Oyediran and Agbaje, 1991). The parties were the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and National Republican Convention (NRC), the former being a little to the left and the latter a little to the right (see, Olagunju, et al, 1993:216; Omoruyi, 2002). This development, executed after the dissolution of the thirteen associations that applied for registration has been as part of the grand design to execute a â€Å"hidden agenda† to perpetuate the military regime in power (Osaghae, 1998:220). The eventual annulment of the 12 June 1993 presidential election by the military regime of general Babangida lends some credence to this claim. The country once again returned to multi-party democracy in 1999 following the transition inaugurated and successfully completed by General Abdulsalm Abubakar. Initially, three political parties – Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), later All Nigerian People Party (ANPP), and the Alliance for Democracy (AD) were registered by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). By December 2002, the number of registered parties rose to thirty (30), while additional three 621 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria political parties were registered in January/February 2006 (see, Simbine, 2005; Onu and Momoh, 2005). This presupposes the opening up of the political space for democratic opportunities and development. But in reality, the opportunities associated with such openings are yet to be positively exploited for the political development of the country. This may not be unconnected with the poverty of ideology that characterizes Nigerian parties, as will be demonstrated in the next section. 4. Nigerian Parties and Ideological Dispositions Let us begin with parties of the First Republic, that is, the NPC, NCNC and AG. Ideologically, the NPC was an essentially conservative and elitist party, while the AG and NCNC appeared to be progressive and welfarist, predicated upon socialist ideology. Even at that, it may be difficult to delineate the very ideological orientation of these parties. They, however, share a common feature of ethno-regional ideology, seeking to capture and consolidate power in their respective spheres of influence/region. They were also driven by a commitment to the nationalist struggle, though in varying degrees, against colonialism. The ambiguity as regards their ideological disposition can further be gleaned from the pattern of alignment between/among the parties. For example, the resolve of the NPC and NCNC, two ideologically incompatible parties, the former to the right and the latter to the left, to enter into the alliance that formed the government during the First republic attests to this. Scholars have pointed out that the alliance was a â€Å"marriage of inconvenience†, and would have been better between the AG and NCNC. Because the alliance was not informed by a commitment to a belief system and principles espoused by party ideology, it crumbled, sooner than expected, like a park of cards (see, Dudley, 1993; Post and Vickers, 1973; Olaniyi, 1997:87). In terms of ideological orientations, parties of the Second Republic would appear, safe for the GNPP, to be the reincarnations of the parties of the moribund First Republic. 622 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria For this and related reasons, there were no fundamental differences in party politics and activities, as the country was â€Å"once again mired in a vituperative and vicious politics† (Yaqub, 2002; 125). This was graphically captured by the unprecedented pace of intra and inter-party factionalization and conflicts. Political vagrancy permeates the political landscape, leaving in its wake major realignments and coalitions among the parties (see, Osaghae, 1998:139 – 44). Notably, the formation of the so-called forum of the â€Å"progressive† governors consisting of PRP, GNPP, NPP and UPN was unable to survive long, as the ruling NPN used its federal might and patronage to attract decampees from other parties. Eventually, it succeeded in wooing the NPP of the East, in a manner reminiscent of the First Republic into an alliance, which like the earlier one, collapsed sooner than expected. The eventual breakdown of the alliance marked the beginning of internal crisis for the NPP, following the refusal of some of its top leaders particularly Mathew Mbu and Professor Ishaya Audu to resign their appointments in government (Osaghae, 1998:140). Logically, it may be argued that if the parties had been guided by a clear commitment to a particular belief system and principles, much of the crisis and contradictions that characterized party politics under the Second Republic could have been averted. But, since the parties were motivated largely by ethnic competition for power through their respective ethnic champions, nothing more could have been expected. As Osaghae has argued, while the instrumentalist†, to the attainment of this feat (1998:144). The degeneration of party politics through political vagrancy, elite factionalization and weak institutionalization led to the military coup of December 31, 1983 that brought the Second Republic into an abrupt end. Yet, the NPP and GNPP appeared to be liberal in ideology with a strong belief in mixed economy; the NPN conservative with emphasis on free market system and respect for traditional institutions. The PRP, a leftist and most radical party had a populist, antineocolonial agenda and advocates social revolution and income redistribution; and the UPN; the most disciplined, socialist/welfarist in orientation was based on the 623 J Shola Omotola, MS., Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria philosophy of free education and heath care delivery (see, Ujo, 2000:91-102; Osaghae, 1998:118-122). The aborted Third Republic witnessed a new experiment in party formation, when for the first time in the history of party politics in Nigeria; the government created and imposed two political parties on the system. Ordinarily, the existence of two political parties should represent two different ideological camps, as has been the case between the Labour and Conservative parties in Britain and Democrats and Republican parties in the USA. This was not the case with respect to the SDP and NRC in Nigeria. Although, while one was a little to the left and other a little to the right, nothing much differentiates the parties, at least not in ideological dispositions (see, Jinadu, 1995; Lewis, 1994; Oyediran and Agbaje, 1991; Adejumobi, 1997). Yaqub (2002:128) had written about party politics under the Third Republic that: The way incompatibility had been manifested in the two parties †¦ was not fundamentally due to serious ideological divisions (in any case, the manifestoes of the parties, despite phrase – mongering of â€Å"a little to the left†, and â€Å"a little to the right†, did not articulate much programme differences), but to assert, that even if we are to borrow Babangida’s words, the â€Å"old lines of cleavages and primordial loyalties† once again simply asserted themselves. If parties of previous republics were found wanting on ideological stance and commitment, those of the Fourth Republic are obviously worse. Omoruyi (2002:8) has noted that the manner of origin of the parties does not fit into what we know from literature, their composition fluid and unstable, and can be viewed as mere instruments of transition from military to civil rule. And for the future and with the prospect for more parties, â€Å"they raise more questions than answers to the lingering political problems for Nigeria†. According to him, the PDP, for example, draws its founders from â€Å"all and sundry political persuasions: conservatives, radicals and progressives† (Ghali – Na’bba, 624 J Shola Omotola, MS., Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 2001: cf Omoruyi, 2002:8), most of whom supported the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election and flirted with the military during the annulment and in the post-annulment period; including some serving as ministers or members of the ING or as member of the Abacha undemocratic constitutional conference or as leaders of some of the five political parties set up and managed by General Abacha’s aides that finally endorsed him as the sole presidential candidate in April 1998 (Omoruyi, 2002:8-9). The APP did not differ in any respect as its founders also served as ministers or as aides in different parts of the country under Abacha. The AD that looks different was, however, affected by its inability to meet the federal character clause in the constitution and up till today remains essentially a Yoruba party. It was perhaps the foregoing faulty origin and precarious foundations of these parties that have been largely responsible for their seeming ideological barrenness. Although, the PDP and APP (ANPP) were status quo parties, given their capitalist and conservative dispositions; and the AD progressive and radical in appearance, none of them seems to have clear policy positions as a basis of popular mobilization and legitimacy of their actions. Judging by their activities, it has been observed that â€Å"there’s almost nothing to chose, between PDP and other parties in terms of ideological learning† (Iyare, 2004:92). Simbine (2002:2005:23) has also observed that the manifestoes of the first three political parties were â€Å"essentially the same in content†, as they were not crafted differently, and the strategies for achieving objectives did not differentiate parties from each other. In a seeming self-indictment passage, Jerry Gana, a former Minister of Information and PDP stalwart observes: In terms of cohesion and firm ideological learning, there is a problem but PDP will be transformed, PDP will be strong, PDP will be strengthened ideological, PDP will be more organized, PDP will be in power for 30 years (quoted in Iyare, 2004:94). 625 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria Given the obvious poverty of ideology that characterizes the first three political parties of the Fourth Republic, PDP, APP and AD, it should not be surprising that almost all the other parties that sprang up or broke away from them did no do so because of ideological disagreements. Neither was it that they have articulated alternative views of governance for sustainable democracy and development as a viable basis of popular mobilization to wrestle power from the incumbent party. Rather, they were products of adversarial elite behaviour taken to the points of irreconcilability. Little wonder, these parties also have no ideological stance on major national questions other than the transformation and manipulation of forces of identity particularly ethnicity and religion (see, Simbine, 2005). The implication is that the â€Å"so-called political parties are not in competition with one another. They are in factions; these factions are more in competition within themselves than with another party† (Omoruyi, 2002:17). An informed observer and consistent scholar of Nigerian politics captures the scenario thus: Unfortunately, the succeeding generations of party leaders, despite having their forbearers’ legacies to draw from and better educational background into the bargain, have not demonstrated this perspicacity.

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics

Properties of Zeolites as Cataystics 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ZEOLITES Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates, composed of TO4 tetrahedra (T = Si, Al) with O atoms connecting neighbouring tetrahedral, that contain pores and cavities of molecular dimensions (Breck, 1974). Many occur as natural minerals, but it is the synthetic varieties which are among the most widely used sorbents, catalysts and ion-exchange materials in the world (Barrer, 1982). The channels are large enough to allow the passage of guest species. In the hydrated phases, dehydration occurs at temperatures mostly below about 400 °C and is largely reversible. The framework may be interrupted by (OH, F) groups: these occupy a tetrahedron apex that is not shared with adjacent tetrahedra. Zeolites are different from other porous hydrates, as they retain their structural integrity upon loss of water. The Structure Commission of the International Zeolite Association identifies each framework with a three-letter mnemonic code (Baerlocher et al., 2001) e.g. Amicite- GSI; Faujasite- FAU etc. 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF GREEN PROCESSES In the chemical industry, the acceptability of a process is not only governed by cost and yield but in terms of eco-friendliness and pollution abatement. Choosing a more efficient catalytic route has greatly improved the efficiency of chemical processes. Green chemistry has been defined as the design of chemical products and processes in order to reduce or eliminate the generation of hazardous substances (Armor, 1999). The principles of green chemistry listed by Armor (1999) employs future approaches to new chemical processes. It includes: efficient use of raw materials, energy efficiency, use of biodegradable products and other subtle features. 2.0 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ZEOLITES 2.1 NATURAL ZEOLITES Research in the field of zeolite science and technology made its first steps with natural zeolites and was mostly focused on natural zeolites until the beginning of the 1950s. The history of zeolites began in 1756 when Swedish mineralogist A.F. Cronstedt discovered the first zeolite mineral, stilbite when studying its apparent properties discovered its strange behaviour upon heating although there is no certain proof of its identity. The term ‘zeolite was coined from two Greek words, ‘zeo (to boil) and ‘lithos (stone). On the contrary, the first zeolite, chabazite, described by Bosch DAntic in 1792 has clear evidence in literature. Several other zeolites were discovered in the following years and around 1850, only about 20 zeolite types were reported in mineralogy books, including analcime, brewsterite, chabazite, edingtonite, epistilbite, faujasite, gismondine, gmelinite, harmotome, heulandite, laumontite, levyne, mesolite, natrolite, phillipsite, scolecite, stilbi te, and thomsonite. Starting from the middle of the 19th century until about 1975, there was a moderate increment in the number of zeolites discovered (about one new type every 6-7 years) and a clear acceleration in the last twenty five-thirty years. About 40 natural zeolites are known (Tschernich, 1992). Most zeolites known to occur in nature are of lower Si/Al ratios, since organic structure-directing agents necessary for formation of siliceous zeolites are absent. Sometimes natural zeolites are found as large single crystals, though are very difficult to make in the laboratory. The catalytic activity of natural zeolites is limited by their impurities and low surface areas. However, interests in natural zeolites shifted towards zeolite synthesis and synthetic materials, as they offered a series of advantages such as wider versatility, more open frameworks( for adsorption and catalysis),and quality in constitution and chemistry. As a result, research on natural zeolites, was mainly devoted to ion exchange process which was discovered around 1850 (Thompson, 1850; Way, 1850). Few years later, Eichhorn observed that chabazite and natrolite behaved as reversible ion exchangers. In the early decades of the 20th century, ion exchange selectivity of a variety of zeolites for peculiar cations, e.g., ammonium was performed (Barrer, 1950) and starting from the end of the 1950s, found uses in various sectors of environmental relevance, e.g., treatment of wastewaters and soil rebuilding and remediation. The most recent frontier in the application of natural zeolites is in the field of life sciences. One of the drawbacks of natural zeolite research for application purposes is due to the limited availability of zeolite as it is a precious mineral, compared to the synthetic counterparts which could be mass produced at a lower cost (Colella, 2005). 2.1.1 Formation The pathway of natural zeolite formation is similar to the laboratory synthesis of zeolite. Zeolite nucleation, crystallisation and crystal growth take place as a result of slow to fast cooling of warm to hot magmas(of volcanic origin), which are basic, oversaturated in silicate and aluminate species and contain alkaline and/or alkali-earth cations. hot fluid + volcanic ash oversaturated basic magma zeolite crystals {solution + gel) The magma is obtained via hydrolysis of the original glassy material and is responsible for the tetrahedral coordination of aluminium and together with silicon. The main factors responsible for the structural formation are temperature, chemistry of the ash and the chemical composition of the resulting solution. Gel is formed along the process but is however not directly connected to nucleation and growth, as there is evidence that zeolite nuclei form from the oversaturated solution at the glass shards / solution interface (Aiello et al., 1980). Temperature and time are two factors which differentiate natural zeolitisation from laboratory synthesis. 2.1.2 Physico-chemical properties i.Cation exchange: The ion exchange properties of natural zeolites depend on their chemistry which ismainly in terms of selectivity. Selectivity depends on the framework topology, ion size and shape, charge density on the anionic framework, ion valence and electrolyte concentration in the aqueous phase (Barrer et al., 1978). ii.Reactions with alkalis: Oncein alkaline environments, zeolites become unstable as they tend to transform, similarlyto glassy systems, into more stable phases, usually into other framework silicates (Goto and Sand, 1988). The interaction of zeolite-rich materials with Ca(OH)2 give rise to calcium silicates and aluminates, which upon hydration are able to harden in both aerial and aqueous environments. This behaviour makes them to be known as pozzolanic materials Thermal properties: Heating of zeolite powder induces physical and chemical changes, which have been shown to include water loss (which causes expansion on heating), decomposition and gas evolution, phase transition, structure breakdown, re-crystallisation, melting etc (Colella, 1998). This property enables zeolite tuff stones to display good sound-proofing and heat insulation and serve as good building materials. Depending on zeolite nature, chemical composition and rock constitution, the tuff expands as a result of quick heating at temperatures of 1250 °C or above, inadvertently followed by a rapid quenching to room temperature. 2.2 SYNTHETIC ZEOLITES Early work could be traced back to the claimed synthesis of levynite by St Claire Deville in 1862 as there were no reliable methods for fully identifying and characterising the products. The origin of zeolite synthesis however, evolved from the work of Richard Barrer and Robert Milton which commenced in the late 1940s. The first synthetic zeolite unknown as a natural mineral later found to have the KFI structure (Baerlocher et al., 2001 ) was discovered by Barrer when investigating the conversion of known mineral phases under the action of strong salt solutions at fairly high temperatures (ca. 170-270  °C). Robert Milton was the first person to use freshly precipitated aluminosilicate gels to carry out reactions under milder conditions. This led to the discovery of zeolites A and X (Milton et al., 1989). Initially, the synthesis of zeolites required the use of only inorganic reactants but was however expanded in 1961 to include quaternary ammonium cations leading to the discovery o f silica-rich phases (high-silica zeolites). Subsequently, more synthetic zeolites have been discovered (Baerlocher et al., 2001), as well as zeolite-like or zeolite-related materials (Szostak, 1989) known as zeotypes- represented by microporous alumino- and gallo phosphates (AlPO4s and GaPO4s) and titanosilicates. Studies on understanding zeolite synthesis have continued to be carried out upto the present day (Table 1). This has been due to discoveries of new materials, advances in synthetic procedures, innovations in theoretical modelling methods and, especially, by the development of new techniques for the investigation of reaction mechanisms and the characterisation of products. Table 1: Evolution of materials development in the zeolite field ‘‘Low Si/Al zeolites (1-1.5) A, X ‘‘Intermediate Si/Al zeolites (f2-5) A) Natural zeolites: erionite, chabazite, clinoptilolite, Mordenite Synthetic zeolites: Y, L, large-pore mordenite, omega ‘‘High Si/Al zeolites (ËÅ"10-100) By thermochemical framework modification: highly silicious variants of Y, mordenite, erionite By direct synthesis: ZSM-5, Silicate Silica molecular sieves silicalite Source: Flanigen (1980) 2.2.1 Mechanism of Hydrothermal Synthesis Experimental observations of a typical hydrothermal zeolite synthesis Due to its chemical reactivity and low cost, amorphous and oxide-like Si and Al which make up the microporous framework are mixed with a cation source usually, in a basic water-based medium. The resulting aqueous mixture is then heated in a sealed autoclave at above 100ËšC allowing the reactants to remain amorphous for sometime (induction period) after which crystalline zeolites are detected (Figure 2). Gradually, an approximately equal mass of zeolite crystals which is recovered by filtration, washing and drying replaces all the amorphous materials (Cundy and Cox, 2005).The bond type created in the crystalline zeolite product (e.g. zeolite A or ZSM-5) which contains Si-O-Al linkages is similar to that present in its precursor oxides, therefore the enthalpy change is not great. This process reduces nucleation rates, thereby forming larger crystals. Reactivity of the gel, temperature and pH affect the rate of zeolite formation as an increase in pH and temperature leads to increase in the rate of formation of zeolite crystals. In their mother liquors, the zeolitic phases are metastable, thereby transforming the initial zeolite into an undesired thermodynamically more stable phase (Ullmann, 2002). 2.2.3 Synthesis from Clay minerals Kaolin and metakaolin (calcining kaolin at 500-700 °C) are two important clays used for the production of the zeolites NaA, NaX, and NaY (Breck, 1974; Barrer, 1978) because binder-free extrudates and granules which offer advantages in adsorption technology are produced. 2Al2Si2O5(OH)4 2Al2Si2O7+4H2O Kaolin Metakaolin Depending on the zeolite, the clay is shaped and, SiO2and seed crystals are added and while in the preformed shape, the zeolite crystallises. Alternatively, zeolite is formed when the binder component of metakaolin undergoes hydrothermal treatment with sodium hydroxide solution (Goytisolo et al., 1973; Chi and Hoffman, 1977). Using ultrasonic radiation, reaction rate is enhanced and there is energy saving and lower production cost due to lower temperatures. This process is less often used as it could cause odor of the product due to impurities present in clay e.g. iron 2.2.2 Industrial Zeolite Synthesis Zeolite synthesis is an extremely broad area of research and due to differences in the preparation of each zeolite type, two representative zeolite types, TPA-ZSM-5 and zeolite Na-A, are chosen for a more detailed presentation of the synthesis {Table 2} (Jansen, 2001). Table 2: Synthesis mixtures, physical chemical properties of the representative zeolites Molar oxide ratio Na-A TPA-ZSM-5 SiO2 1 1 Al2O3 0.5 Na2O 1 0.16 H2O 17 49 TPA2O 0.3 T (ËšC) > 150 Physical Chemical properties Pore arrangements 3D, cages connected via windows 2D, intersecting channels Bronsted activity low High Affinity hydrophilic Hydrophobic Pore volume (cm3/g) 0.37 0.18 Source: Jansen (2001) The composition of zeolite product can be expressed by the cation type and its overall Si/Al ratio. In the preparation of zeolite, nucleation is the rate determining step which is influenced by a range of factors dependent on the temperature of the reaction mixture. Low Temperature Reaction Mixture: Here, the reaction mixture is prepared at low temperature, At high pH, condensation occurs when the nucleophilic deprotonated silanol group on monomeric neutral species is attacked (Figure 5). The acidity of the silanol group depends on the number and type of substituents on the silicon-atom (Jansen, 2001). Temperature raise of the reaction mixture from High Temperature Reaction Mixture: At this temperature, zeolites are formed from amorphous material which involves, reorganisation of the low temperature synthesis mixture, nucleation and precipitation (crystallisation). During the induction period, gel and species in solution rearrange from a continuous changing phase of monomers and clusters which disappears through hydrolysis and condensation, in which nucleation occurs (Jansen, 2001). The process particles become stable and nuclei forms, followed by crystallisation which could occur in metastable solid, highly dispersed or dense gel forms. Product quality, reaction time and yield influence efficient production of zeolites by optimising their composition. 2.2.2 Secondary Synthesis Methods Catalytic or adsorbent properties that cannot be achieved by direct synthesis utilise post-synthesis (secondary) treatments to increase catalytic activity, shape selectivity or porosity and thermal/hydrothermal stability. Dealumination and ion exchange are used to carry out these modifications. Dealumination The zeolite structure is selectively dealuminated by acid solutions, washing out aluminium out of the crystal, as was observed for zeolite A. However, for higher silica containing materials (clinoptilolite), a fully decationated structure is produced after continuous acid treatment. The metal ion is replaced with H3O+ followed by (Al+3 + H3O+) removal, generating a hydroxyl nest. Aluminium is removed from the framework but not the crystal by hydrothermal dealumination. The heterogeneity in the concentration of the framework and non-framework of aluminium depends on the type of modification used. Hydrothermal treatment causes the amorphous aluminium to collect on the crystal surface which through fluorosilicate treatment can reduce aluminium centred acid sites. Often, a secondary pore system is generated and hydroxyl nests can be annealed. In order to enhance the catalytic properties as well as stability, silicon, aluminium and other metal ions are introduced into the framework (Szostak, 2001). Other methods of producing thermally and hydrothermally stable cracking catalysts include: use of EDTA, SiCl4 vapor, and (NH4)2SiF6. Acid mediated dealumination process via aluminium extraction and generation of hydroxyl nest (Szostak, 2001) Ion Exchange This is an important technique in pore-size engineering for the production of zeolitic adsorbents (Breck, 1974). Ion exchange used in the production of Brà ¸nsted acid sites has major importance in the synthesis of solid acid catalysts (Ullmann, 2002). Ion exchange can be achieved also, for certain intermediate-silica and high-silica zeolites (e.g., mordenite) by treatment with mineral acids although involves the risk of dealuminating the zeolite framework (McDaniel and Maher, 1976). An indirect route via an ion exchange with ammonium salt solutions must be followed, producing the â€Å"ammonium form† calcined at ca. 400 °C to liberate ammonia and give the hydrogen form (Ullmann, 2002). When cations to be exchanged are positioned inaccessible cages, a sieve effect is produced. pH is an important factor in ion exchanging of highly charged transition metal ions in order to prevent metal hydroxide precipitation especially at low pH. 2.3 CHARACTERISATION OF ZEOLITES In order to determine the relationships between the physical and physicochemical as well as sorptive and catalytic properties of zeolites, it is important to know the structural, chemical and catalytic characteristics of zeolites. Several standard techniques are employed in zeolite characterisation. The most common of which is X-ray diffraction used in determining the structure and purity of zeolites. Others include: x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) or atomic absorption spectrometry, used to analyze elemental composition, sorption analysis to study the pore system, IR-spectroscopy, typically using adsorbed probe molecules to characterize the acid sites, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), for determining the size and morphology of zeolite crystallites, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, temperature programme desorption (TPD) and many others (Schà ¼th, 2005). 3.0 GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF ZEOLITES Zeolites are used primarily in 3 major applications: ion-exchange, adsorbents, and catalysts. Natural zeolites play an important role in bulk mineral applications. Adsorbent applications: Common adsorbent applications focus on removal of small polar molecules and bulk separations, by more aluminous zeolites and based on molecular sieving processes respectively (Table 3). Table 3: Zeolite commercial applications as adsorbents Purification Bulk separations Drying: natural gas (including LNG), cracking gas (ethylene plants), refrigerant Normal/iso-paraffin separation, Xylene separation CO2 removal: natural gas, flue gas (CO2 + N2) cryogenic air separation plants Olefin separation, Separation of organic solvents Pollution abatement: removal of Hg, NOx, SO Separation of amino acids, n-nitrosoamines Sweetening of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas Separation of CO2, SO2, NH3 Source: Flanigen (1980). Catalyst applications: Zeolites have the greatest use in catalytic cracking. They also play a role in hydroisomerisation, hydrocracking and aromatics processing. The strong acidity of zeolites plays a role in hydrocarbon processing. Asides this, they are finding increasing use in synthesis of fine chemicals and organic intermediates in isomerisation reactions, nucleophilic substitution and addition etc. Table 4: Zeolite applications in Catalysis Inorganic reactions: H2S oxidation, NO reduction of NH3, CO oxidation, reduction Hydrocarbon conversion: Alkylation, Cracking Organic reactions: Aromatization (C4 hydrocarbons), Aromatics (disproportionation, hydroalkylation, hydrogenation, hydroxylation, nitration, etc.) Dehydration Epoxidation Beckman rearrangement (cyclohexanone to caprolactam) Methanol to gasoline Chlorofluorocarbon decomposition Shape-selective reforming Source: Flanigen (1980); Galarneau et al (2001). Ion-exchange applications: Zeolite properties are directly exploited in several applications such as in the detergent industry, where zeolites are used for water softening or ‘building, animal food supplementation and in the treatment of wastewater (Townsend and Coker, 2001). Zeolite A has selectivity for Ca2+, thereby providing a unique advantage. Also, natural zeolites can be used to remove of Cs+ and Sr 2+radioisotopes through ion-exchange (Payra and Dutta, 2003). Table 5: Applications and advantages of Ion-exchange Applications Advantage Metals removal and recovery High selectivities for various metals Removal of Cs+ and Sr2+ Stable to ionizing radiation Detergent builder zeolite A, zeolite X (ZB-100, ZB-300) Remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ by selective exchange, no environmental problem Ion exchange fertilizers Exchange with plant nutrients such as NH4+ and K+ with slow release in soil Source: Flanigen (1980) Other Applications: Zeolites also play important roles in health-related applications (such as antibacterial agents, vaccine adjuvants, drug delivery, bone formation, biosensors and enzyme mimetics), oil refining, and petrochemical processes. Zeolite powders are used for odor removal and as plastic additives. Zeolitic membranes offer the possibility of organic transformations and separations coupled into one unit (Payra and Dutta, 2003). 3.1 ZEOLITES AND THE ENVIRONMENT Nearly all applications of zeolites are driven by environmental concerns, from cleaning toxic (nuclear) wastes, to treatment of wastewater, thereby reducing pollution. Zeolites have now been used to replace harmful phosphate builders in powder detergents due to water pollution risks. Zeolite catalysts help to save energy as they make chemical processes more efficient, minimising un-necessary waste and by-products. When used as solid catalysts and redox catalysts/sorbents, they reduce the need for corrosive liquid acids and remove atmospheric pollutants, (such as engine exhaust gases and ozone-depleting CFCs) respectively (Bell, 2001). In wastewater, zeolites (clinoptilolite, mordenite) are used to remove ammonia and ammonium ions (Townsend and Coker, 2001), as well as heavy metal cations and transition metals. 3.2 ZEOLITE CATALYSTS IN GREEN CHEMISTRY Zeolite catalysts have contributed to the design and synthesis of novel materials and development of new methodologies in organic synthesis, displacing the conventional and waste generating reagents thereby maximising atom utilization and reducing waste generated (E-factor). Zeolites play an important role in acid-catalyzed reactions such as acylation, alkylation, isomerisation and condensation, cyclisation and electrophilic aromatic substitution. Acylation of aromatic substrates: used in fine chemicals manufacture although has proven unsuccessful in less reactive aromatic compounds due to adsorption imbalance, unless performed in vapor phase using H-ZSM-5 (Singh and Pandey, 1997). 4.0 CONCLUSION Due to the role zeolites play mainly as catalysts in the environment as well as in chemical industry, the efficiency of the zeolite catalysts has been greatly improved. The yield and selectivity of the zeolite process is quantitative and in addition, reduces energy requirements, capital costs and complexity of equipments. Over the years, the synthesis process of zeolites have encompassed the principles of green chemistry as described in the report which has included waste prevention, energy efficiency, fewer environmental impacts, safer solvents, renewable materials, process intensification, catalysis and reduction in capital cost. Though present techniques seem to apply some of the principles of green chemistry, further research is still being employed to improve the overall process. 3.0 REFERENCES Aiello, R., Colella, C., Casey, D. G. and Sand, L.B. 1980. In L.V.C. Rees, ed. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Zeolites. Heyden Son, London, U.K. pp. 49. Armor, J. N. Applied Catalysis A: 189 (1999) 153-162. Baerlocher, C., Meier, W.M., Holson, D. 2001. Atlas of Zeolite Framework Types. 5th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Barrer, R. M. 1978.Zeolite and Clay Minerals as Sorbents and Molecular Sieves. Academic Press, London. Barrer, R.M. 1978. In L.B. Sand and F.A. Mumpton, eds. Natural Zeolites. Occurrence, Properties, Use. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. pp. 385. Barrer, R.M. 1982. Hydrothermal Chemistry of Zeolites; Academic Press: London. Barrer, R.M. J. Chem. Soc. (1950) 2342. Bell, R.G. 2001. Zeolites. [Online]Available at http://www.bza.org/zeolites.html. [Accessed 1 May 2010]. Breck, D.W. 1974. Zeolite Molecular Sieves. New York: Wiley. Colella, C. 1998. In J. Ma. Rincon and M. Romero, eds. Characterization Techniques of Glasses and Ceramics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 112. Colella, C. 2005. Natural zeolites. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds.Stud Surf Sci Catal 157. Cundy, C. S., Cox, P. A. 2003 .The Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zeolites: History and Development from the Earliest Days to the Present Time. Chem. Rev.103, pp.663-701. Cundy, C.S. and Cox, P.A. 2005. The hydrothermal synthesis of zeolites: Precursors, intermediates and reaction mechanism. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials. 82, 1-78. Damour, A., Hebd, C. R. Seances Acad. Sci. 44 (1857), pp. 975; also Ann. Chim. Phys., 3rd series, 53 (1858), pp. 438 (in French). De Gennaro, M., Colella, C., Franco, E. and Stanzione, D. Neues Jahrb. Mineral.-Mon.hefte. H.4(1988)149. Flanigen, E.M. 1980. Pure Appl Chem 52:2191-2211. Galarneau, A., Di Renzo, F., Fajula, F., Vedrine, J. eds., 2001. Zeolites and Mesoporous Materials at the Dawn of the 21st Century. Stud Surf Sci Catal 135. Goto and L.B. Sand. 1988. In D. Kallo and H.S. Sherry, eds. Occurrence, Properties and Utilisations of Natural Zeolites. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary. pp. 161. Jansen, J.C. 2001. The preparation of oxide molecular sieves: synthesis of zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite science and practice.2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137. Lancaster, M. 2002. Green Chemistry: an introductory text. Cambridge: Royal society of chemistry. Ch.4. McDaniel, C.V., Maher, P.K. In J. A. Rabo, ed. Zeolite Chemistry and Catalysis. ACS Monogr.171(1976) pp.285 Milton, R.M. In M.L. Occelli, H.E. Robson, eds. Zeolite Synthesis. ACS Symp. Ser. 398 (1989) pp.1 Payra, P., Dutta, P.K. 2003. Zeolites: A Primer. In S.M. Auerbach, K. Carrado, P.K. Dutta, eds. Handbook of zeolite science and technology.New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. Ch.1. Schà ¼th, F. 2005. In J. Cejka and H. van Bekkum, eds. High-throughput experiments for synthesis and applications of zeolites. Stud Surf Sci Catal 157. Sheldon, R.A. 2000. A special topic issue on green chemistry: Atom efficiency and catalysis in organic synthesis. Pure Appl. Chem., 72(7), pp. 1233-1246. Singh, A. P., Pandey, A. K. J. Mol. Catal. A: Chemical 123(1997), 141 Szostak, R. 1989. Molecular Sieves Principles of Synthesis and Identification. 2nd Edition: Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, Blackie, London. Thompson, H.S. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 68. Townsend, R.P., Coker, E.N. 2001. Ion exchange in zeolites. In H. Van Bekkum, E.M. Flanigen, P.A. Jacobs, J.C. Jansen, eds. Introduction to zeolite science and practice. 2nd ed. Stud Surf Sci Catal 137. Tschernich, R.W. 1992. Zeolites of the World. Phoenix: Geoscience Press. Ullmann: Encyclopaedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2002. Zeolites. Wiley Interscience. W.R. Grace Co., DE2707313, 1977 (C. W. Chi, G. H. Hoffman). W.R. Grace Co., US3906076, 1973 (J. A. Goytisolo, D. D. Chi, H. Lee). Way, J.T. J. Royal Agric. Soc. Engl. 11 (1850), pp. 313.

The Repeating Island Essay -- Literary Analysis, Benintez-Rojo

In The Repeating Island, Antonio Benintez-Rojo writes on postindustrial societies inaccurate views of the Caribbean as a common archipelago and calls on postindustrial societies to reexamine their view of the Caribbean. In this paper the following topics in The Repeating Island will be examined in validating Benitez- Rojo’s perspective that the Caribbean is a meta-archipleago with no boundaries or center: Columbus’s machine to the sugar-making machine, the apocalypse to chaos, rhythm to polyrhythm, and literature to carnival. The first way Benitez-Rojo draws attention to his perspective is through his analysis on how the Atlantic became known as the Atlantic because of the presence of European slave plantations, piracy, servitude, and monopoly over the trades in the Caribbean. He refers to Christopher Columbus presence in Hispaniola as the starting point of â€Å"the machine† (Benitez- Rojo 5) that brought a wealth of goods from Hispaniola to Spain, who then spread its profitable practice to Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico at the expense of native people (6). After the Cape San Vicente disaster, where the Spanish lost treasure from French pirates, in 1565 Columbus’s machine expanded its conquests of gold, silver, and diamonds thus creating the fleet. The fleet not only helped the Spanish become wealthy, it made the Caribbean a meta-archipelago because of its presence in the waters of the Caribbean, Atlantic, and Pacific. Menendez de Aviles’s fleet proved successful in protecting gold and silver from pirate attacks through the use of Caribbean ports, forts, militia, and geography (8). In today’s Caribbean â€Å"the machine† is referred to as the plantation, which the Europeans controlled all aspects o... ...ted by it (23). Benitez-Rojo calls on a rereading of the Caribbean text and states once this is done, the result is the text showing the harmony of rhythms whose attempts to escape ‘in a certain kind of way’ (28). It is through carnaval the text can be seen in its most natural form, a meta-archipleago of everyday life. In The Repeating Island, Antonio Benintez-Rojo defends his perspective that the Caribbean is a meta-archipleago with no boundaries or center through his writing on Columbus’s machine to the sugar-making machine, the apocalypse to chaos, rhythm to polyrhythm, and literature to carnival. He debunks postindustrial society’s view of the Caribbean as a common archipelago by examining what makes the Caribbean, the Caribbean through its history and culture, which persuades the reader to reexamine the various writing on the Caribbean.

Cape It Syllabus

CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination Correspondence related to the syllabus should be addressed to: The Pro-Registrar Caribbean Examinations Council Caenwood Centre 37 Arnold Road, Kingston 5, Jamaica, W. I. Telephone Number: (876) 920-6714 Facsimile Number: (876) 967-4972 E-mail address: [email  protected] org Website: www. cxc. org Copyright  © 2008 by Caribbean Examinations Council The Garrison, St. Michael 11158 Barbados This document CXC A4/U2/08 replaces CXC A4/U1/01 issued in 2001.Please note that the syllabus was revised and amendments are indicated by italics and vertical lines. First Issued 1998 Revised 2001 Revised 2008 Please check the website www. cxc. org for updates on CXC’s syllabuses. RATIONALE1 AIMS 2 SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO BE ASSESSED2 PRE-REQUISITES OF THE SYLLABUS3 STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS4 UNIT 1: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY THEORY MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY5 MODULE 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SYST EMS9 MODULE 3: INFORMATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING13 UNIT 2: APPLICATION AND IMPLICATIONMODULE 1: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT16 MODULE 2: USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TOOLS19 MODULE 3: SOCIAL, ORGANIZATIONAL AND PERSONAL ISSUES22 OUTLINE OF ASSESSMENT25 REGULATIONS FOR PRIVATE CANDIDATES31 REGULATIONS FOR RESIT CANDIDATES31 ASSESSMENT GRID32 GLOSSARY33 T he Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) are designed to provide certification of the academic, vocational and technical achievement of students in the Caribbean who, having completed a minimum of five years of secondary education, wish to further their studies. The examinations ddress the skills and knowledge acquired by students under a flexible and articulated system where subjects are organised in 1-Unit or 2-Unit courses with each Unit containing three Modules. Subjects examined under CAPE may be studied concurrently or singly, or may be combined with subjects examined by other examination boards or institutions. The Caribb ean Examinations Council offers three types of certification. The first is the award of a certificate showing each CAPE Unit completed. The second is the CAPE diploma, awarded to candidates who have satisfactorily completed at least six Units, including Caribbean Studies.The third is the CAPE Associate Degree, awarded for the satisfactory completion of a prescribed cluster of seven CAPE Units including Caribbean Studies and Communication Studies. For the CAPE diploma and the CAPE Associate Degree, candidates must complete the cluster of required Units within a maximum period of five years. Recognized educational institutions presenting candidates for CAPE towards the award of the Council’s Associate Degree in nine categories must, on registering these candidates at the start of the qualifying year, have them confirm in the required form, the Associate Degree they wish to be awarded.Candidates will not be awarded any possible alternatives for which they did not apply. ? RATION ALE The Information Technology Syllabus for the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) reflects the belief that Information Technology is essential to the economic and social development of the region. The widespread use of Information Technology, the tools and techniques for inputting, processing, storing, outputting, transmitting and receiving information, which was made possible because of improvements in computer and telecommunications technology, has significantly changed society.A large proportion of business transactions is now performed over computer networks. The Internet and multimedia computers have had a significant impact on the ways in which people work, learn, communicate, conduct business, and on the ways they seek entertainment. The increased integration of computer and telecommunications technology has led to an increased globalisation of the world economy. It is now possible to use a telephone line to transfer information between computers located anywh ere in the world.Moreover, as the world becomes familiar with the potential of Information Technology, people are beginning to realise that many problems and situations which were hitherto thought of as primarily involving physical activities, in fact rely for their solution on the ready availability of relevant information. In order for the Caribbean to participate in and contribute to this new world, it is essential that Caribbean people become familiar with this technology.This not only implies that we must know how to use the technology from a purely technical point of view; but also means that we must be conscious of the impact of Information Technology. In particular, we must be made aware that the appropriate use of Information Technology can help solve the problems that we are facing in their daily lives, whether they be of an economic, social or personal nature, and that Information Technology provides opportunities for economic development, as well as for further integrati on, of the region.However, the increased use of Information Technology also raises a number of ethical, legal and political issues, ranging from questions concerning privacy of information about individuals, to intellectual property rights. The introduction of Information Technology without careful consideration often worsens a problem, rather than solves it. Any decision to turn to Information Technology must, therefore, be preceded by a critical analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed solution. In addition, Information Technology has made access to information and misinformation far easier.It is, therefore, crucial that anyone, before using any information, first critically evaluate its reliability. ? AIMS The syllabus aims to: 1. develop an awareness of the importance of information in the solution of many problems; 2. develop a critical attitude to gathering, processing and evaluating information; 3. develop a broad understanding of hardware, software, networks, databases and information systems and their uses; 4. sensitize students to the use of Information Technology in conducting and living their daily lives; 5. evelop an awareness of the power and pitfalls of Information Technology; 6. develop an awareness of the ethical, legal and political considerations associated with information technology; 7. assist students in solving real-life problems, using the tools and techniques of the computer and computer-related technologies; 8. encourage students to use information sources and services to retrieve, interpret and communicate information; 9. develop a positive attitude to new and emerging technologies in Information Technology. ? SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO BE ASSESSEDThe skills that students are expected to have developed on completion of this syllabus have been grouped under three headings: 1. Knowledge and Comprehension; 2. Application and Analysis; 3. Synthesis and Evaluation. Knowledge and Comprehension The ability to: | |- recall and g rasp the meaning of basic facts, concepts and principles of Information Technology; | | |- identify real-life problems for which Information Technology solutions are appropriate and beneficial. | Application and Analysis The ability to: |- use facts, concepts, principles and procedures in unfamiliar situations; | | |- interpret and present data and draw logical conclusions about Information Technology issues; | | |- identify and recognize the relationships between the various components of Information Technology and their impact on society; | | |- recognize the limitations and assumptions of data gathered in an attempt to solve a problem. | Synthesis and EvaluationThe ability to: | |- make reasoned judgements and recommendations based on the value of ideas and information and their implications; | | |- use the computer and computer-based tools to solve problems; | | |- justify and apply appropriate techniques to the principles of problem-solving. | | | | ? PRE-REQUISITES OF THE S YLLABUSAny person with a good grasp of the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) Information Technology Syllabus, or its equivalent, should be able to pursue the course of study defined by this syllabus. However, successful participation in the course of study will also depend on the possession of good verbal and written communication skills. ? STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS This syllabus is arranged into TWO Units, each made up of three Modules. Whilst each Module in each Unit is independent, together they form a coherent course of study which should prepare candidates for the world of work and studies at the tertiary level.UNIT 1: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY THEORY Module 1-Fundamentals of Information Technology Module 2-Information Technology Systems Module 3-Information and Problem-Solving UNIT 2: APPLICATION AND IMPLICATION Module 1-Information Management Module 2-Use of Information Technology Tools Module 3-Social, Organizational and Personal Issues In order to be successful, students should spend at least 50 hours of the 150 hours per Unit in a computer lab or on a computer at home or in the workplace. UNIT 1: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY THEORY MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. develop an understanding of how Information Technology (IT) relates to other disciplines in Computing; 2. develop an understanding and appreciation of data and information, and the distinction between them; 3. develop an understanding of the nature and sources of information; 4. develop an understanding and appreciation of Information Technology and its history. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |explain the concept of Information Technology; | |Definition and scope of Information Technology; application of tools for | | | |informational purposes. | | | | | |describe the relationship between Information Technology and | |Computing, Computer Science, So ftware Engineering, Computer Engineering, | |other disciplines in Computing; | |and Information Systems; commonalities and differences between | | | |disciplines. | | | | |explain the characteristics of data and information; | |Definition of terms; examples. | | | |Data: include unprocessed, unorganised and discrete (in separate, | | | |unrelated chunks), qualitative (opinion-based, subjective) or quantitative| | | |(measurement-based, objective), detailed or sampled. | | | | | | |Information: including distortion, disguise, reliability, inconsistency, | | | |incomprehensibility, subject to interpretation, value, relevance, | | | |confidentiality, timeliness, completeness, security, shareability, | | | |availability, lifespan, information as a commodity, format and medium; | | | |Nature and structure of information: strategic, tactical, operational; | | | |structured, semi-structured and unstructured. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | UNIT 1 | |MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTAL S OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (cont’d) | | | |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | |distinguish among data, information and knowledge; | | Differences among data, information and knowledge. | | | | |explain information processing; | | | | | |Definition of information processing (input process, output process); | | | |manual versus automated information processing; components of manual | | | |information processing: collect, collate, analyze, present and | | | |disseminate; components of automated information processing: input (data | | | |capture or entry), process (for example, analyze, sort, calculate), store,| | | |retrieve, output (present and disseminate); transmit data and information. | | | |Interrelationship between data and information through information | | | |processing. | | | | | | |Types of manual and automated information systems. | | | | | |discuss the importance of data and information; | |Use of information in decision making: data quality; appropriateness of | | | |data. Nature and structure of information: strategic, tactical, | | | |operational; structured, semi-structured and unstructured. | | |identify ways of representing data and information; | |Data: including character, string, numeric, aural (for example, Morse | | | |Code, musical notes), visual (for example, the individual frames of a | | | |movie, fingerprints); musical symbols. | | | | | | | |Information: including text, graphics, sound, video, special purpose | | | |notations (mathematical, scientific and musical notations); graphical | | | |representations (graphs and charts); tables. | | | | |discuss various types of information sources; | |Types of information sources: including books, journals, catalogs, | | | |magazines, newspapers, online libraries, CD-ROMs, DVDs, electronic | | | |databases, web sites, people, blogs, wikis; advantages, disadvantages of | | | |information sources. | | | | | UNIT 1 | |MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (cont’d) | | | | | |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | |identify characteristics of information sources; | |Include availability, cost, currency of information, amount of detail | | | |(depth), breadth of coverage, reliability, format and medium. | | | | |identify tools used in the entry, retrieval, processing, | |Examples of hardware, software, and communication tools. Tools associated| |storage, presentation, transmission and dissemination of | |with the Internet including on-line services; search engines; Usenet, | |information; | |Internet Relay Chat (IRC), telnet, ftp, newsgroups, message board, mailing| | | |list, Internet telephony. | | | | |justify the tools used in Information Technology; | |Hardware, software and communication tool used in the entry, retrieval, | | | |processing, storage, presentation, transmission and dissemination of | | | |information; advantages a nd disadvantages. | | | | | |outline the history of Information Technology; | |Brief history of computer hardware and software, Internet and | | | |telecommunications; categories by size, cost, and processing ability. | | | | |explain the meaning of terms related to telecommunication. | |Transmission media, channels, receivers, senders, modulation, bandwidth; | | | |telecommuting. | Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. Use the Internet to source relevant material. 2. Compile a glossary of terms using the Internet, computer magazines, textbooks and other information sources. This could form the basis of an in-class discussion. 3.Develop and use diagrams to represent the concepts and relationships contained in the Specific Objectives. 4. Invite resource persons with experience in the innovative use of Inf ormation Technology in fields, such as business and entertainment, to speak on relevant issues. 5. Develop manual filing system and compare functions, such as retrieval and sorting, with automated information system. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (cont’d) RESOURCES |Daley, B. |Computers are your Future, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. | | | | |Heathcote, P. A Level Computing, Letts, London: Letts, 2005. | | | | |Long, L. and Long, N. |Computers: Information Technology in Perspective, New Jersey: | | |Prentice Hall, 2004. | | | | |Parson, J. and Oja, D. |Computer Concepts, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2007. | | | |Shelly, G. , Cashman, T. , and Vermaat, M. |Discovering Computers, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2008. | UNIT 1 MODULE 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. develop an understanding of the components o f Information Technology Systems; 2. develop an appreciation for human computer interaction (HCI); 3. develop an awareness of security measures associated with information technology systems; 4. develop an awareness of the structure of the World Wide Web and its standards and protocols. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |describe Information Technology Systems; | |Definition; types of Information Technology Systems; examples. | | | | | |identify the components of an Information Technology | |Hardware, software, network, users: end-users and IT professionals; definitions | |System; | |and examples. | | | | |describe the purpose and functions of hardware | |Purpose, functions and types of hardware including input, output, storage, | |components; | |processor and peripheral devices; definitions and examples; interaction between | | | |hardware components. | | | | | describe the purpose and functions of software | |Purpose, functions and types of software including application, system (operating| |components; | |systems, language translators, and utilities); proprietary versus open source | | | |software; information systems including embedded systems: monitoring and control | | | |systems; data processing systems; management information systems, decision | | | |support systems, executive information systems; expert systems, data warehouses; | | | |definitions and examples; major input and output from each type of information | | | |system, such as data, information, processed transactions, reports including | | | |detailed, summarised, exception, ad hoc. | | | | |explain the various stages of the system development | |Including feasibility study, analysis, design, development, implementation, | |life cycle (SDLC), and software engineering; | |review; deliverables/output of each stage including system proposal, project | | | |plan, various diagrams and charts, information system (software) test plans, | | | |conversion plans, documentation including user and technical manuals. | | | | |UNIT 1 | |MODULE 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS (cont’d) | |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | | |discuss the tools used in the different stages of the | |Including questionnaires, interviews, observation, review/investigation of | |(SDLC); | |printed material, ER diagrams, data flow diagrams, process models, object models,| | | |decision tables and trees, computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools, | | | |GHANT charts, prototypes, flowcharts, pseudocode, programming languages. | | | | |describe the purpose and functions of network | |Purpose, functions and types of networks including local area network (LAN), wide| |components; | |area network (WAN), metropolitan area network (MAN); virtual private network | | | |(VPN); Internet; Intranet; Extranet; configuration; topologies; transmission | | | |media: (wired versus wireless): fibr e-optic, Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP); | | | |hotspots, protocols; definitions and examples; network security; firewalls. | | | | |explain the roles of users; | |Inclusion of IT professionals, end users: expert users, novice users; definitions| | | |and examples. | | | | | |compare the various features associated with the | |Features including, speed, efficiency, portability, maintainability, storage, | |components of Information Technology Systems; | |transmission. | | | | | |describe the interrelationship etween the components in| |Relationship between the components: hardware, software, network, user. | |an Information Technology System; | | | | | | | |describe different types of HCI; | |Types of HCI including forms, menu, command line, natural language, graphical | | | |user interface (GUI), speech and direct manipulation. | | | | |distinguish between different types of HCI; | |Types of HCI including forms, menu, command line, natural language, graphical | | | |user in terface (GUI), speech and direct manipulation. | | | | | |describe ways in which a user’s characteristics require | |For example, age, education, differently abled and cultural differences, | |adaptation of a user interface to increase | |non-visual interfaces, sensors, accessibility features; differences. |effectiveness; | | | | | | | |UNIT 1 | |MODULE 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS (cont’d) | | | | | |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | |compare various security mechanisms; | |Physical access control versus logical access control measures and devices; | | | |including passwords (characteristics of an effective password- not obvious, | | | |length, mixed case, alphanumeric); authentication, encryption, swipe or key | | | |cards, biometric; data integrity. | | | | | |explain the meaning of terms related to the security of| |For example, data security, passwords, authentication, encryption, data | |Information Technology Systems; | |corruption. | | | | |describe the structure of the World Wide Web (WWW) as | |Hyperlinks, home page, web page versus web site; Hypertext Transfer Protocol | |interconnected hypertext documents; | |(HTTP), universal resource locator (URL), hypertext markup language (HTML), | | | |extensible markup language (XML); IP address versus domain name. | | | | | |discuss Internet standards. | |Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP); Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol | | | |(TCP/IP) in terms of specifications, guidelines, software and tools. | Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1.Identify a user of a microcomputer system in an office environment and conduct an interview to ascertain which software tool is used by the user and why. Discuss specific features of the software that makes it suited to the given task. Determine if a more appropriate software tool could be used for the task, identify the software tool and explain why it is more appropriate. 2. Compile a glossary of terms using the Internet, computer magazines, textbooks and other information sources. This could form the basis of an in-class discussion. 3. Identify two examples of a HCI and make a presentation comparing and contrasting those interfaces. 4. Use the example of a person driving a car and interacting with the instruments on the dashboard as an opportunity to introduce HCI. UNIT 1MODULE 2: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS (cont’d) 5. Identify HCI used in different organizations (for example, restaurants, hospitals, recording studios, security firms, scientific labs) and by the student (for example, ipod, gaming consoles, cell phone, web pages) and evaluate these designs based on a set of identified criteria. 6. Develop and use diagrams to represent the concepts and relationships contained in the Spe cific Objectives. 7. Invite resource persons with experience in the innovative use of Information Technology in business to speak on relevant issues. RESOURCES |Daley, B. |Computers are your Future, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. | | | |Heathcote, P. |A Level Computing, Letts, London: Letts, 2005. | | | | |Long, L. and Long, N. |Computers: Information Technology in Perspective, New Jersey: | | |Prentice Hall, 2004. | | | | |Parson, J. and Oja, D. Computer Concepts, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2007. | | | | |Shelly, G. , Cashman, T. , and Vermaat, M. |Discovering Computers, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2008. | UNIT 1 MODULE 3: INFORMATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. develop the knowledge, skills and understanding of the problem-solving process; 2. develop an appreciation for the value and importance of information to solve problems. SPECIFIC OBJ ECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |explain the concept of problem-solving; | |Problem-solving as a process; finding solutions to a problem. | | | | |describe the stages of the problem-solving process; | |Stages: including define the problem, analyze the problem (using tools, such as | | | |questionnaires, interviews, observation, reviewing documents), identify and | | | |evaluate possible solutions, select and justify the optimal solution, implement, | | | |and review. | | | | | |describe the role of information in the solution of | |Identification of the information necessary for the solution of personal, | |real-life problems; | |commercial, scientific and social problems. Categorization of information as | | | |essential, desirable, extraneous or cosmetic in the solution of a problem. | | | | |explain how information can be used to solve real-life | |Criteria for rejecting or accepting a piece of information, including bias, | |problems ; | |accuracy, cultural context, completeness, currency of information, refereed and | | | |unrefereed sources, characteristics of information on the Internet. | | | | | |analyse the role of information in fulfilling the goals | |Information used in decision-making and problem-solving; capitalising on | |of an individual or organization; | |opportunities. | | | | |use data flow diagrams (DFD) to document the flow of | |Use of symbols for data stores, processing, data flow and external entities; | |information within an organization; | |context level DFD and first level detailed DFD. | | | | | |explain the concept of an algorithm; | |Definition; algorithm as a problem-solving strategy; its role and importance in | | | |the problem-solving process; properties of algorithm. | | | | |identify the necessary properties of ‘well designed’ | |Properties including a general solution to the problem in a finite number of | |algorithms; | |steps, clearly defined and unambiguo us, flow of control from one process to | | | |another. | UNIT 1 MODULE 3: INFORMATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING (cont’d) |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should e able to: | | | | | |identify ways of representing algorithms; | |Inclusion of narrative, flowcharts and pseudocode. | | | | | |develop algorithms to represent problem solution; | |Simple input, output, processing; control structures: sequence, selection, | | | |looping and iteration. | | | | |explain the concept of programming; | |Development of computer programs; stages in programme development; programming | | | |paradigms; examples of programming languages. | | | | | |outline the interrelationship(s) between algorithms and | |Algorithms as precursor to program development. | |programming. | | | Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1.Conduct discussion leading to the definition of a problem to ascertain the students’ perspectives of the problem. Give feedback on the perspectives by identifying problems in different scenarios. For example, a farmer getting rid of a pest affecting his crop. 2. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that most if not all problems have an information component. For example, the information the farmer would need to get rid of the pest affecting his crop would be the type of pest, what are its natural enemies, what would be the effect on his crop of using a particular pesticide or a natural enemy of the pest. 3. Visit business places to observe how Information Technology is used to address problems faced by the organisation. 4.Invite professionals, artists, and others to make presentations to students to give additional perspectives on issues relevant to their studies. Encourage students to make presentations to persons outside of the school system, who can evalua te a comment on the presentations as well as answer the students’ questions. 5. Invite professionals, artists, and others to make presentations to students to give additional perspectives on issues relevant to their studies. Encourage students to make presentations to persons outside of the school system, who can evaluate a comment on the presentations as well as answer the students’ questions. UNIT 1 MODULE 3: INFORMATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING (cont’d) 6.Choose a physical activity, such as a sport, to demonstrate how the use of information can be an effective tool or mechanism in ensuring a desired outcome, such as improved performance or success over competitors. 7. Develop a set of scenarios in which there are either opportunities or problems encountered by an organization. Students are required to (a) identify a problem, (b) formulate a problem statement, (c) suggest two possible solutions, and (d) recommend one of the solutions and justify the choice. 8. Adop t a single DFD notation style and have students complete several exercises to become familiar with that style, for example, Gane and Sarson. Present data flow diagramming errors and have students label these with the relevant terms.For example, black hole – process with only input data flow, a process with only output data flow from it; data stores or external entities that are connected directly to each other, in any combination; incorrectly labeling data flow or objects, some examples are: i) labels omitted from data flow or objects; ii) data flow labeled with a verb; iii) processes labeled with a noun. 9. Work in groups to address problem-solving through the development of algorithms and the use of pseudocode to solve those problems. This activity should ensure that all elements are practiced. RESOURCES |Daley, B. |Computers are your Future, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. | | | | |Heathcote, P. A Level Computing, Letts, London: Letts, 2005. | | | | |Long, L. and Long, N. |Computers: Information Technology in Perspective, New Jersey: | | |Prentice Hall, 2004. | | | | |Parson, J. and Oja, D. |Computer Concepts, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2007. | | | |Shelly, G. , Cashman, T. , and Vermaat, M. |Discovering Computers, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2008. | ? UNIT 2: APPLICATION AND IMPLICATION MODULE 1: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. acquire the knowledge needed to organize and manage data, making it meaningful to an organization; 2. demonstrate the skills needed to organize and manage data within a database. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |differentiate among terms used in Information | |For example, fields, records, tables, files, database and database management | |Management; | |system. | | | | | |explain how files and databases are used in | |Uses: including s tore, organize, search, retrieve; eliminate redundancies; data | |organizations; | |mining, data marts and data warehouses. | | | | |explain how data storage and retrieval have changed over| |Concept of the terms; history of storage devices; formats of data (from | |time; | |text-based to multimedia); volumes to be stored; compression utilities; access | | | |method and speed. | | | | | |explain the advantages of using a database approach | |Advantages including speed, efficiency, cost; data quality: completeness, | |compared to using traditional file processing; | |validity, consistency, timeliness and accuracy; data handling, data processing. | | | | |describe the different types and organization of files | |File types including master and transaction files; file organization including | |and databases; | |serial, sequential, random or direct, indexed sequential database types including| | | |personal, workgroup, department and enterprise databases; database organization | | | |including hierarchical, relational, network and object-oriented. | | | | |describe data flow diagrams (DFD); | |Define DFD; identify and describe the four symbols (elements): entity, process, | | | |data store, data flow; identify and describe the various levels of DFDs including| | | |context level DFD and first level detailed DFD. | UNIT 2 MODULE 1: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT (cont’d) |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |explain how the growth of the Internet impact on data | |Use of symbols, context level DFD and first level detailed DFD to illustrate the | |handling and data processing; | |information flow. | | | | | |explain how the absence of data quality, accuracy, and | |Including loss of revenue, sales, competitive advantage, customers; poor | |timeliness will impact on organizations; | |decision-making; missed opportunities; impact on problem solutions. | | | | |explain the concept of normalization; | |Definition of normalisation; attribute redundancy and anomalies; normal forms: | | | |including first normal form (1NF), second normal form (2NF), third normal form | | | |(3NF); keys: primary, foreign and composite (or compound or concatenated); | | | |partial and non-key dependencies; relationships, use of entity-relationship | | | |diagrams (ERD). | | | | |apply normalisation rules to remove normal form | |To 1NF, 2NF and 3NF; removal of attribute redundancy and anomalies, such as | |violations; | |repeating groups of data (or attributes), partial and non-key dependencies. | | | | | |explain how normal for relations impact databases; | |Including improve performance, data consistency, data integrity. | | | | | |construct a database. |Including forms; reports, queries, tables, tuples, relationship links, enforcing | | | |referential integrity, updates or deletions, use of foreign keys, use of macros, | | | |SQL, data validation and verification strategies; used to analyse data and | | | |provide multiple viewing and reporting of data. | | | | | Suggested Teaching and Learning ActivitiesTo facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. Choose a single scenario to which students can easily relate, such as a library system or student registration system, and use it throughout the Module to develop understanding of the specified concepts and techniques. UNIT 2 MODULE 1: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT (cont’d) 2. Ask students to complete several exercises on the normalisation process involving the use of standard notations to remove normal form violations. 3. Compile a glossary of terms using the Internet, computer magazines, textbooks and other information sources.This could form the basis of an in-class discussion. 4. Students should design and construct a database. 5. Develop and use diagrams to represent the concepts and relationships contai ned in the Specific Objectives. RESOURCES |Daley, B. |Computers are your Future, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. | | | | |Heathcote, P. |A Level Computing, Letts, London: Letts, 2005. | | | | |Long, L. and Long, N. Computers: Information Technology in Perspective, New Jersey: | | |Prentice Hall, 2004. | | | | |Parson, J. and Oja, D. |Computer Concepts, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2007. | | | | |Shelly, G. , Cashman, T. and Vermaat, M. |Discovering Computers, New York: International Thompson Publishing | | |Company, 2008. | UNIT 2 MODULE 2: USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TOOLS GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. develop confidence in selecting and using productivity tools to solve real-life problems; 2. use their knowledge and understanding of a variety of software tools and apply their use to various situations; 3. develop the competence to present information in the appropriate manner; 4. use informat ion critically; 5. develop an awareness of emerging technologies. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | |explain reasons for the use of IT tools; | |Enhanced speed, accuracy, reliability, efficiency, flexibility, communication, | | | |presentation of information, integration of processes, decision making; storage | | | |and retrieval of large volumes of data; manageability of task; pressures from | | | |clients, competitors and suppliers. | | | | |explain the functions and uses of the major types of | |Examples of different types of software packages and their function and uses. | |software tools; | |Including Financial Packages, Software Development Tools, Statistical Tools, Word| | | |Processors, Spreadsheets, Presentation Tools, and Database Management Tools, | | | |Desktop publishing, graphics and personal information management. | | | | | |explain where a word processing tool is appropriate; | |Main purpose and uses; significa nt features of the tool. | | | | |explain where a spreadsheet tool is appropriate; | |Main purpose and uses; significant features of the tool. | | | | | |explain where a presentation tool is appropriate; | |Main purpose and uses; significant features of the tool. | | | | | |explain where a database management system tool is | |Main purpose and uses; significant features of the tool. |appropriate; | | | | | | | |jon | |UNIT 2 | |MODULE 2: USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY TOOLS (cont’d) | |SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES | |CONTENT | | | | | |Students should be able to: | | | | | | | |use IT tools to solve real-life problems; | |Including hardware, application software, and communication tools; main purpose | | | |and uses of tool; significant features of the tool. | | | | |justify the use of IT tools to solve real-life problems;| |Criteria for selection including the nature of the solution, type of analysis | | | |required (calculations, formatting, graphing), type of data, type o f storage, | | | |type of access method, type of processing, type of reports (detailed, summary, | | | |preformatted, ad hoc). | | | | | |use the most appropriate format to display or present | |Format including text, graphics, sound, video, graphs, charts and tables. |information; | | | | | | | |use appropriate information sources to retrieve and | |Criteria for selection, appropriateness for task, types of information sources: | |disseminate information for a particular task; | |including books, journals, catalogs, magazines, newspapers, online libraries, | | | |CD-ROMs, DVDs, electronic databases, web sites, and people. | | | | | |justify the acceptance or rej